The Armenian Highlands. Located at the northern frontier of Western Asia, between the Anatolian and Iranian highlands, the Black Sea and Mesopotamian plains. The Armenian people formed on the territory of the Armenian Highlands, where they also established their statehood and developed their unique culture.
The Armenian Highlands almost entirely coincide with the historical homeland of the Armenians. From the earliest times, it stretches from the confluence of the Kur and Aras (Araks) rivers to Gamirka (Cappadocia), from the Pontic and Trex ridges to the southern slopes of the Armenian Taurus.
The Armenian Highlands are framed on all sides by high mountain ranges, between which the highlands in ancient times were called Midjnashkhar ayots (Armenian: Middle world of the Armenians). The boundaries of the highlands in the west are the Antitaurus mountains, which separate it from the Anatolian plateau (Asia Minor), and in the northwest – the Pontic mountains.
The northern frontier of the highlands stretches along the watershed of the Moskha and Trex ridges. In the east, they form the boundaries of the plains of Artsakh and Kur-Araks. Reaching Garadakh, the highland border turns west, stretches along mountain ranges, further north of Lake Kaputan (Urmia), then turning south, it covers the western coastal areas of the lake and reaches the Kordvian mountain ridge considered to be the continuation of the Armenian Taurus.
Again turning west and crossing the Tigris river, it reaches the Euphrates, crosses it and through the mountains of Malatya reaches Antitaurus. Within these borders, the area has a territory of about 400 thousand sq. km.
The surface of the Armenian Highlands is cut by mountain ranges and ridges stretching in different directions, between which lie basins and plains suitable for agriculture, called “fields” in Armenian sources.
The highlands have an altitude of 1500-1800 meters above sea level, which significantly exceeds both the neighboring Iranian highlands and the Anatolian plateau.
In the center of the highlands from the east to the south stretches the mountain range “Aikakan par”, at the eastern end of which rises the extinct volcanic mountain massif Ararat (Masis) with two peaks, one of which represents the highest point of the Armenian Highlands (5165 m), named in Armenian sources as Free Masis, which connects through a pass named “Sardar Spring” to the peak Sis or Little Ararat (3925 m).
Masis is a sacred mountain for Armenians (it is dedicated to the 18th day of the ancient Armenian calendar), a symbol of the homeland. The people have composed numerous tales and legends about Masis. According to the Bible, Noah’s Ark stopped on Masis (Ararat).
From the eastern border of the “Aikakan par” ridge, the Vaspurakan mountain chain stretches southward, naturally continuing into the Zagros mountain ridge.
The Armenian Highlands have numerous mountain ranges. West of the Vaspurakan mountain range stretches the picturesque mountain range of Tsahkants, at the edge of which rises the only active volcano in Western Asia – Tondrak (3542 m).
To this day, steam of high temperature and sulfur gases erupt from its 600-meter-deep crater. In the southern part of the Tsahkants mountains rises the extinct volcano Sipan (4434 m), which represents the second highest mountain in the highlands.
South of Sipan, bypassing the western shores of Lake Van, the Bznuniats mountains stretch, ending with the peak of Nemrut (3050 m). Nemrut is an extinct volcano, however, it was active until the first half of the 15th century (the last eruption occurred in 1441).
The extensive northeastern part of the Armenian Highlands is called the Lesser Caucasus. In this part, the mountains of Javakhk, Viraajots, Bazum, Pambak, Gegama, Sevana, Vardenis, Mrav, and Artsakh deserve mention. From the Vardenis mountains, the Syuniks or Zangezur mountain range starts and extends south to the Araks (Aras) River, with the highest peak of the Lesser Caucasus – Kaputjugh (3904 m) – rising in its southern part.
At the northern frontier of the Ararat Valley, the highest mountain in the Republic of Armenia – Aragats (4090 m) – rises. The grassy pastures and meadows at its foot have represented renowned pastoral areas since ancient times. To the east of Aragats, Mount Ara rises.
Along the southern part of the Armenian Highlands stretches the Armenian Taurus ridge, on different parts of which a number of mountain peaks rise (Marutasar or Maratuk, Tsovasar, Andok, Arnos, Artos, and others).
The Armenian Highlands stand out for their wealth of water resources. It is the main distributor of Western Asia and it’s not a coincidence that as early as the 2nd millennium BC it was named Nairi – “country of rivers” by the Semitic population of ancient Mesopotamia. This is where the Euphrates, Tigris, Aras, Galis (Alis), Gailget (Kelkit), Kura, and Chorokh have their sources.
The mother river of the Armenians is the Aras or Araks, the basin of which fully lies within the territory of the Armenian Highlands. The sources of the Aras are located in the area of the Byurakn Mountains.
In ancient times, the Aras River flowed independently into the Caspian Sea, but over time, changing its course, it merged with the Kura. The Aras has numerous tributaries: the Akhurian, Kasagh, Razdan, Arpa, Vorotan, Voghji, Thmut, etc.
From ancient times, the Aras had immense political and economic significance. The basin of its middle course extends over the largest and most fertile plain – the Ararat Valley, which for many centuries was the political center of Armenian statehood – the throne center.
The ancient capitals of the state were built in the Ararat Valley: Armavir, Yervandashat, Artashat, Vagharshapat, and Dvin. The capital of the Republic of Armenia, Yerevan, is also located there.
The Euphrates is the longest river in Western Asia (3065 km), and the Tigris (1850 km) is the most abundant. The Euphrates consists of two branches – Western and Eastern. The Western Euphrates originates from the Tsahkavet Mountains, located north of the city of Karin (Erzerum).
For centuries, this river was considered the western border of Greater Armenia. The Eastern Euphrates – Aratsani, originates from the Tsahkants Mountains. The two branches of the Euphrates merge near the city of Kapan in Sophene and make up the single Euphrates, which later, leaving the territory of the Armenian Highlands, flows through Mesopotamia. Joining the Tigris, the Euphrates makes up the Shatt al-Arab river, which in turn flows into the Persian Gulf.
The Tigris also consists of the western and eastern branches. The sources of the Western Tigris are located in the territory of Sophene near the small lake Tsovk. Leaving the highlands, the Tigris flows through the territory of Mesopotamia, joins the Euphrates, and together they flow into the Persian Gulf.
The Kura originates from the Taik province, the Koh area of the Kriakunk village. The river mostly flows outside the Armenian Highlands, but in ancient times it separated Greater Armenia from Virk and Agvank (Caucasian Albania). In the Mugan field, the Aras joins the Kura and they together flow into the Caspian Sea.
From the Bardz Aik province (High Armenia), the Galis (Alis) and Gail rivers flow out. The Black Sea basin also belongs to the Chorokh River, which originates from the Chormayri Mountains, located in Sper.
Numerous lakes and ponds are found in the highlands, the largest of which are Urmia (Kaputan), Van, and Sevan.
Lake Urmia is located on the border of the Iranian Highlands. In terms of area, Kaputan is the largest of the three aforementioned lakes (5900 sq.km), an endorheic closed basin, and has salty water, due to which there is no life there.
Due to a high evaporation rate, the surface of Lake Urmia is constantly shrinking. The coastal zone of Kaputan has a thick layer of salt. Several rivers flow into the lake: Salmast, Urmia, Aras, and others.
Lake Van is also known by the names Bznuniats, Tospa, Rshtuniats. The second largest in terms of area in the Armenian Highlands (3,800 sq.km), it is an endorheic lake with extremely salty water.
The level of the lake constantly changes, sometimes falling, sometimes rising. In 1841, due to a sharp rise in the water level, the lake completely covered the ancient city of Arches. The village of Akhtamar was also submerged.
For this reason, of the seven islands mentioned in “Ashkharatsuyts” (Atlas of the World), only Akhtamar, Arter, Ktuts, and Lim remain, the most notable of which is Akhtamar with the magnificent Church of the Holy Cross.
The lake is home to only one type of fish – tarekh. Lake Van is a closed basin, accepting other rivers and streams. The Lake Van basin is the ancient cradle of Armenian statehood.
At the same time, it is an area of important political and cultural significance. Numerous settlements were built on the shores of the lake: Van, Arches, Artsken, Khat, Datvan, Vostan, and others.
Lake Sevan, which in ancient times was called the Gegham Sea or Gegarkunik Sea, has fresh water and is rich in various types of fish (ishkhan, kohak, bahtak, as well as the whitefish introduced in recent decades).
Before the artificial reduction, the lake had an area of 1,420 sq.km. (now 1,240 sq.km) and was located at an altitude of 1,919 meters (now Sevan is 18 meters lower). It had one island, which has now become a peninsula.
Here is the famous Sevan Monastery (Sevan Desert) with the churches of St. Virgin and St. Arakelots. 28 rivers and streams flow into Lake Sevan, the most famous of which are Dzknaget, Gavaraget, Vardenis, and Masrik.
From Sevan, through a water channel built back in Urartu times, a river begins. In addition to the lakes mentioned above, numerous small lakes (partly saline) are found on different territories of the highlands, the most famous of which are Archak, Gailatun, Tsovk, Nazik, Arpa, Parvana, and others.
The Armenian Highlands are rich in minerals. From time immemorial, the salt mines of Kohba, Kahzvana, and Nakhchavan were exploited. Significant salt mines were in Akhtznik, Turuberan, Vaspurakan. The territory of Little Armenia was also rich in salt mines. Large salt reserves were discovered in the territory of Yerevan (Avan).
From ancient times, the Armenian Highlands were known for their metal mines and are considered one of the oldest metallurgical centers in the world. It is worth mentioning the Metsamor metallurgical complex in the Ararat Valley, which existed as far back as the 4th millennium BC.
In various areas of the highlands, copper, iron, lead, and arsenic ores are found. The copper mines of Gugark and Syunik are known. Akhtznik stood out among others with its copper ores.
Iron is found in many areas of Armenia, but the most notable were the mines of Akhtznik and Turuberan, exploited from ancient times. Due to the abundance of iron, the main occupation of the residents of some regions of Tavush was blacksmithing and the weapon craft.
Of the noble metals, gold and silver are found. Silver mines are most common in Bardzr Hayk (High Armenia), Sophene, Artsakh. From ancient times, the gold mines of Spera were known. The Sodk (Tsavdek, Zod) region in Syunik and the area of Mount Voskehat in Tavush were also rich in gold. Chrome, molybdenum, and other rare metals are also found.
The Armenian Highlands are also a rich repository of building materials. Multi-colored tuff (pink, black, white, etc.) is widespread, the most famous is the Artik mountain ore.
Rich ores of marble, basalt, granite, silica, pumice, perlite, clay, limestone, and other minerals are also found. There are noticeable coal reserves in the area of the urban-type settlement of Olti in Tavush, in Shirak (Dzadzur), Tavush (Ijevan), Ararat (Jermanis).
Almost in all areas of the Armenian Highlands, there were cold and hot springs, which are known as Jermuk (Armenian: hot spring). Since ancient times, such springs as Vayots Dzor Jermuk, Egekhik-Ehegin in Karnodasht, the springs of Varshak in Tsahkotne, the healing waters of Jermajur (royal baths) in the territory of the Vaykunik region (Artsakh), and others were known. The hot and cold springs of Bjni, Arzni, Dilijan, Ararat, Gavar were also popular.
The Armenian Highlands are almost surrounded by forests on all sides. There are forests in Sophene, in the northern part of Bardzr Hayk, Akhtznik, Turuberan, in the area of the Tavush mountain range, in Tavush, Artsakh, Gugark, in the south of Syunik, in the northwest of Utik (Tavush, Agatev), in the northeast of Ayrarat, in Mokk. Among the species of trees are oak, beech, hornbeam, maple, juniper, ash, walnut. The forests of Artsakh and Utik are known for their varieties of wild fruit trees. Birch and pine groves are also found in places.
In Ancient Armenia, artificial groves and forests were also planted at different periods. Among these are known the forests of Sosyats (Armavir), Tsndots (in the area of Bagaran), Khosrovakert, and the forest of Tachar Mayri (on the territory between Dvin and Garni).
The land in the territory of the Armenian Highlands is fertile. The foothill zone, located at an altitude of 1100-1300 meters, is notable for excellent grape varieties and various stone fruits (apricots, peaches). Armenia is an ancient center for fruit cultivation.
The foothills are distinguished not only by a variety of fruit crops (apple, pear, plum) but also by grain processing. The Armenian Highlands is the ancient homeland of wheat, where its wild species can still be found.
The centers of cereal crops are considered the fields of Taron, Bagrevand, Gark, Kharberd, Karno, Kars, Basen, Erznka, as well as the basin of Lake Van. In lowland semi-desert or desert areas, with artificial irrigation, cotton, rice, figs, pomegranates, olives, melons, watermelons, and other garden crops are grown.
The fauna of the Armenian Highlands is diverse. Favorable conditions for the development of animal husbandry have made it possible to breed sheep, goats, cattle, donkeys, and numerous species of birds from ancient times.
Armenia has been considered a center for horse breeding since time immemorial. According to the Greek geographer Strabo, during the period of the Achaemenid Empire, Armenia provided 20,000 foals per year for the celebration of the day of the god Mithra (Mitra). Artsakh was particularly known for horse breeding. Pig breeding was also widespread in ancient times.
Wildlife includes the brown bear, wolf, fox, wildcat, lynx, badger, deer, roe deer, wild ram, as well as numerous species of birds. It should be noted that in the past, the wild animal world was more diverse.
Unfortunately, due to human activity, many animals, described in Armenian and foreign primary sources, are now either completely extinct or their numbers have decreased.
In the territory of the Ararat Valley, a species of insects proliferated, from which they obtained a significant type of dye, “vordan karmir,” which played an important economic role and was known both within and beyond Armenia.
Ancient sources have preserved valuable information about the administrative units of Armenia – “provinces,” “regions,” or so-called “ashkhars.” From the second half of the 4th century BC, the concept of Lesser and Greater Armenia appears. The two parts of Ancient Armenia had shifting borders, hence different territories.
Lesser Armenia included the upper basin of the Euphrates River, as well as the areas of the Galis and Gailaget rivers. After 331 BC, when Armenian independence was restored, the development of the two parts of Armenia proceeded in a unique and original way.
As an independent state, Lesser Armenia lasted until the 1st century AD (there was a time when it included the Black Sea regions of the Pontus region with the cities of Trabzon and Kerasunt), but gradually losing its lands, it first became a land dependent on Rome, and in 72 AD it became one of its provinces.
The historical development of the cradle of Armenian statehood – Greater Armenia – followed a different path. Being a national state, it also lasted for the subsequent centuries (up until the first decade of the 5th century AD) and became a united center for Armenian lands.
According to the information of the famous Roman scholar Pliny the Elder (1st century AD), Artashid Armenia was divided into so-called “command regions” (Greek: strategiai). After the Arsacid dynasty ascended to the Armenian throne (66 AD), new administrative reforms occurred in the country, as a result of which administrative units became larger, and an early medieval system of provinces or “ashkhars” appeared.
The division of Greater Armenia into provinces was reflected in the well-known work of the great thinker of the ancient world, Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century). In his “Geography”, he mentions 20 provinces, which is similar to the information in the “History” of Agathangelos.
The following decades, in particular the events of the second half of the 4th century, brought serious changes to the administrative system of the country. For this reason, the number of provinces reaches 15 in the “Ashkharatsuyts”: Bardzr Hayk (High Armenia) or land of Karno, Tsopk (Sophene) or Fourth Armenia, Aghdznik, Turuberan or land of Taron, Mokk, Korchayk, Parskahayk, Vaspurakan, Syunik, Artsakh, Utik, Paytakaran, Gugark, Tayk, Ayrarat. These provinces had more than 190 regions.
In the history of Armenia, the most significant role was played by Ayrarat, Vaspurakan, Turuberan, Syunik, Artsakh, Gugark, Bardz Hayk, and Tsopk. Located at the intersection of major international routes and having strategic importance, Armenia was constantly subject to invasions by foreign invaders.
For this reason, the country’s borders were not stable, and the territory of the country was constantly shrinking. At present, the Armenian people have maintained their statehood on 1/10th of the northeastern part of Greater Armenia, in the territories of the Republic of Armenia and Artsakh, which include separate sections of the provinces of Ayrarat, Syunik, Gugark, Utik, and Syunik.
by Bdalyan G.
Translated by Vigen Avetisyan
