Zeitun (Armenian: Զեյթուն) is a village in the Kahramanmaraş province of Turkey. In the past, it was a major city in Armenian Cilicia. The name Zeitun derives from the Armenian Dzetun (Armenian: Զեյթուն), meaning “vegetable oil.” The city of Zeitun was surrounded by the Antitavra mountain range.
The city was divided into four districts – Surenyan (or Central), Verin tah (or New, in Turkish Yeni Dunia), Shovoryan (or Baz Bayır) and Yagubyan (or Kargezlar). At the helm of these districts were the “barons” – heads of princely families who arrived in Cilicia in the 11th century, mainly from Ani, as well as from Van and Sasun.
Zeitun (now Suleymanlı) was among the regions that were relatively unscathed during the Ottoman Turks’ conquest of historic Armenia. The people of Zeitun aided the Ottomans in their wars against other Turkoman tribes, so in 1618, Sultan Murad IV officially recognized their independence in exchange for an annual tax.
In the city, criminals were never imprisoned. They were either executed, exiled from the community, or obliged to pay a fine. The area was fortified, comprising both Armenian and Turkish villages, yet no Turk was allowed to live within the walls of Zeitun itself. For centuries, the people of Zeitun resisted attempts to bring them under control, up until the fateful year of 1915.
Apart from Zeitun, other cities, such as Gandzasar and Shushi in Karabakh or Musa-Dagh and the mountainous region of Sasun, enjoyed full or partial autonomy. Inaccessible settlements, well-protected atop mountains or at the bottom of closed ravines, were easy to defend. Invaders bypassed these areas until the Armenian issue became pressing in the 19th century. In 1808, 1819, 1829, 1840, and 1860, Turkish authorities organized new campaigns against Zeitun.
In 1862, Aziz-pasha attacked the city with a twelve-thousand-strong army, but four thousand Zeitunians managed to maintain their autonomy. With the personal intervention of Napoleon III (note: President of France), Zeitun was granted independence and was freed from taxes.
In 1863, the Armenian prince Levon of Zeitun, while in Milan, sent a petition to Garibaldi proposing a plan to liberate Cilicia from Turkish yoke: Garibaldi’s forces were to sail to the coast of Cilicia, free Sis, and, in conjunction with the people of Zeitun, attack Marash and Adana, where Turkish pashas had sparse garrisons and little money. In return, the Armenian prince promised the Italians domains in Cilicia. Interestingly, around the same time, Mikhail Bakunin approached Garibaldi with a similar proposal. The Italian hero paid no heed to these requests.
In 1865, the people of Zeitun were compelled to submit to Turkish rule and accept their first Turkish Kaymakam (note: governor). However, in 1872 and 1875, they expelled the Turkish police from the city, and in 1877-1878, they revolted again, restoring their independence for three years.
During the mass slaughters of Armenians in 1895-1896 under Abdul-Hamid, the successful actions of the highlanders from Zeitun halted the extermination in the Adana region: 1,500 highlander Armenians trapped 24 Turkish battalions, numerous groups of Kurds, Circassians, and 12 cannons.
As a result of European powers’ intervention, a treaty was agreed upon which included a five-year tax relief, the election of Armenians to public positions, the appointment of a Christian as Kaymakam, and a general amnesty.
In 1915, the genocide of the Armenian people planned by the Young Turks began with Zeitun, which was a bastion and symbol of Armenian resistance. Fakhri Pasha led this operation along with the German officer Eberhard Wolfskehl.
With similar brutality, they crushed the Armenian self-defense in Urfa and also tried to take Musa-Dagh. Armenians in Zeitun were killed, and the surviving women, elderly, and children (15,000 individuals) were deported to the Deir-el-Zor desert from April 8. In their place, Turks who were expelled from Rumelia (Balkans) were settled.
After Turkey’s defeat in World War I and the commencement of the French protectorate in Cilicia, some of the people of Zeitun returned to the city. However, in 1921, they were deported again by the new Turkish authorities – the Kemalists.
by Grigor Avanesov
Translated by Vigen Avetisyan
