The culture of this period can be conditionally designated as Hellenistic. It can be divided into two stages of development: the Hellenistic period proper (3rd-1st centuries BC) and the post-Hellenistic period (1st-3rd centuries AD).
A significant part of the monuments known to us from this time, both in Armenia and in neighboring countries, retain local features while also bearing the distinct influence of Hellenic (Greek) culture, which was widely spread during this era. Hence, the terms “Hellenism” and “Hellenistic” are used in science to describe the era and its cultural phenomena.
Material Culture
In Armenia, as in the entire Near East, the Hellenistic period was a time of urban development. During this period, dozens of cities emerged and flourished in Armenia, and ancient urban centers that had grown from the cities of the Van Kingdom period, such as Armavir and Van, continued to develop. Local ancient urban planning traditions, enriched by advanced Hellenistic urban planning principles, yielded excellent results. Ancient authors such as Strabo, Plutarch, and Appian praised the capitals of Armenia, Artashat and Tigranakert.
Plutarch notes that the construction of Artashat, dubbed “the Armenian Carthage” by the Romans, was preceded by the creation of a master plan that was integrated with the local terrain. Recent archaeological excavations in Artashat have confirmed and supplemented these accounts.
Gradually, the image of a large capital city, situated on nine hills and united by a powerful system of defensive structures, is emerging. The discovered items—weapons, tools, art objects, both local and foreign—provide an idea of the life of the urban population during the Hellenistic period.
Ancient authors vividly describe the strength of Tigranakert’s walls, its luxurious public buildings and palaces, its theater, and the royal suburban park. Material remains and written monuments indicate that the capitals of Yervandashat, Vagharshapat, and other centers had a truly urban appearance.
The excavated fortress of Garni, located east of Yerevan, provides an idea of ancient Armenian fortresses. It was the summer residence of Armenian kings. The fortress walls were built using dry masonry from well-hewn basalt blocks weighing several tons.
The stones were fastened to each other in the horizontal plane with iron clamps using lead-filled recesses. The walls are over two meters thick and at least ten meters high. The walls are equipped with powerful square towers, placed at varying distances from each other, with greater frequency in the most vulnerable areas.
An Urartian cuneiform inscription found inside the fortress, along with other even earlier materials, indicates that a settlement existed here since ancient times. The main part of the surviving wall dates back to the 1st century AD, during the reign of Tiridates I (66-80 AD), as evidenced by an inscription in Greek on one of the blocks.
Among the excavated buildings within the fortress, the palace structure is of significant interest. Judging by the remains, it was richly decorated both inside and out. Near the palace was a bathhouse, built at the end of the 3rd century AD, featuring characteristics typical of Roman baths of that time. The heating system, hypocaust, provided temperature gradation in various rooms according to their purpose. One of the rooms has a preserved mosaic floor.
A true masterpiece of architecture is the pagan temple in Garni. Dating of similar monuments in Syria and Asia Minor indicates it was built in the 1st century AD. The temple in Garni is a peripter with a high podium. A staircase cut into the podium leads to the facade. The temple has a gabled roof with a triangular pediment, supported by 24 columns. It is built in the Eastern-Roman-Hellenistic style, but its luxurious ornaments, stone processing methods, and some critical construction details reveal local traditions.
Undoubtedly, there were other temples in ancient Armenia that were not as influenced by Hellenism, or perhaps not influenced at all. Written records of these temples have been preserved. There were temples dedicated to the gods Aramazd, Vahagn, the goddess Anahit, and others, built in the pre-Hellenistic period or largely retaining its traditions.
An example of such a structure that has come down to us is the sanctuary built in the 1st century BC in Commagene by King Antiochus I of the Yervanduni dynasty on the summit of Mount Nemrut. The objects of worship here were the gods Aramazd, Vahagn, Mithra, the goddess Commagene, and representatives of the ruling Yervanduni dynasty, primarily Antiochus I himself.
The carved ornaments of the Garni temple, the bas-reliefs of kneeling human figures on the podium of the same temple—undoubtedly the work of local craftsmen accustomed to the hardness of basalt—indicate a high degree of development of sculpture in ancient Armenia.
In the same Garni and Artashat, marble statues and their large and small fragments have been found, as well as stone heads and ornamented architectural details in other regions of Armenia. Among the surviving monuments of sculpture, a special place is occupied by the exquisite bronze head of the goddess Anahit, found in Lesser Armenia and now kept in the British Museum. Alongside it, one can place the recently discovered female marble statue from Artashat, an example of late Hellenistic art.
Numerous references to sculpture have been preserved in the works of ancient Armenian authors, particularly Movses Khorenatsi. There were statues of gods and people made of stone and metal, primarily for cult purposes. According to Movses Khorenatsi, some statues were imported from the Greek world, while others were made in Armenia, often modeled after the former. Sculptural monuments demonstrating this blend of Greek and local art include the statues and bas-reliefs of gods and people in the aforementioned sanctuary on Mount Nemrut in Commagene.
These give us an idea of what the statues in the temples described by Movses Khorenatsi might have looked like. A beautiful example of ancient Armenian visual art is the mosaic floor of the bathhouse in Garni. Appropriately for its purpose, the floor features a marine theme. In the center, within a quadrangular frame, are depicted the heads of a man with the Greek inscription “Ocean” and a woman with the inscription “Sea.” Above the heads is another Greek inscription reading: “Worked, receiving nothing.”
Along the outer sides of the central square, as well as along the inner sides of the outer square frame of the mosaic, various deities, predominantly marine (with corresponding Greek inscriptions), and fish are depicted. The mosaic is composed of 15 types of local stone found in the canyon of the nearby Azat River. It reveals a close stylistic connection with corresponding works of post-Hellenistic and Roman art of the 3rd-4th centuries.
Excavations in Artashat have yielded about a hundred beautiful terracotta figurines depicting women with children, horsemen, musicians, and so on.
Our understanding of visual art in ancient Armenia is complemented by a small number of surviving applied art objects—gems and stone seals depicting people, animals, and birds, as well as numerous coins of ancient Armenian kings. Particularly skillfully executed are the coins of Tigranes II and Artavasdes II, whose portraits are very expressive and realistic, undoubtedly demonstrating the features and character of these kings.
Material Culture
Gold and silver jewelry—earrings from the excavations in Garni, medallions from Armavir and Kamo, and a silver cup covered with bas-reliefs found in distant Kuban with the inscribed name of King Pakor—along with other items, testify to the high level of development of jewelry making in ancient Armenia.
Finally, it is worth mentioning the high-quality glassware found during the excavations in Garni and other locations—elegant vessels of various purposes, sizes, colors, and types of glass, beautifully decorated. Some of them were imported, particularly from Syria. Numerous and diverse examples of ceramics have been preserved, among which the painted ceramic items are the most interesting and characteristic.
Spiritual Culture
Information about pre-Christian Armenian spiritual culture has come down to us mainly through the works of early medieval Armenian Christian authors, who often could not accurately reproduce the true picture of phenomena that were distant from them by centuries and foreign to their understanding. Nevertheless, the available material provides a general idea of ancient Armenian religion, folklore, and other areas of spiritual culture.
The pantheon of Armenian gods underwent significant changes. At the head of the pantheon was Aramazd, the father of the gods. Following him were a number of deities, the most important of which were Vahagn—the god of war, the thunder god who slays dragons, and the goddess Anahit. Anahit was especially revered and considered the patroness of the country.
Strabo notes that the Armenians diligently worship Anahit, to whom temples were dedicated in many regions of Armenia, especially in Akilisene (a region located at the western bend of the Euphrates). This region was called the “region of Anahit” by both ancient and medieval Armenian authors.
The 5th-century Armenian historian Agathangelos called the goddess “the glory of our nation, giving life,” “the mother of all virtues, the benefactress of all people.” The gods Mihr (Mithra) and Tir at different times acted as solar deities, with the latter also considered the god of wisdom and writing. The deities Nane and Astghik—the goddess of love—are also known.
Although the names of ancient Armenian deities often resemble Iranian ones, the true essence of Armenian pagan religion was quite different from Iranian Zoroastrianism. It lacked the most characteristic feature of Iranian religion—its dualism, represented by the eternal struggle between good and evil, personified in Ahura Mazda and Ahriman.
We are forced to judge Armenian pagan mythology based only on the few hints preserved by Movses Khorenatsi and other Christian authors. Movses Khorenatsi mentions the cult of four different Aramazds, from which it can be concluded that each was associated with a specific myth. From the myths about Vahagn, Khorenatsi has preserved a remarkable passage about the birth of the god:
Heaven and Earth were in labor,
The crimson of the seas was in labor pains,
From the water arose a red reed,
From its throat smoke arose,
From its throat flame arose,
From that fire a child arose,
And his hair was of fire,
And his beard was of fire,
And his face was as beautiful as the sun.
The historian adds that following this excerpt in the myth was a description of Vahagn’s feats, his battles with dragons (vishaps), and his victories over them. According to the myth, the ancient Armenians associated the creation of the Milky Way with Vahagn, who, after stealing straw, scattered it along his path. Vahagn’s wife was considered to be the goddess Astghik (“Little Star”), one of whose sanctuaries was called “Vahagn’s Rest.” It was said that Astghik, the goddess of love, would spread mist over the river while bathing to prevent young men on the shore from seeing her nakedness.
Notably, with the formation of the new pantheon, the oldest Armenian deities—Hayk, Ara the Beautiful, Torq, and others—did not find a place in it but were instead humanized, becoming regarded as historical figures, patriarchs of the Armenians, and ancestors of the nakharar families. Conversely, the new god Vahagn, for example, was considered a deified human.
These notions are very characteristic of the rationalism of the Hellenistic period. Hellenism left a certain imprint on the ancient Armenian pantheon. As was the case in neighboring countries, the deities of the Armenian pantheon were compared and identified with Greek gods with similar functions.
Thus, Aramazd was identified with Zeus, Vahagn with Heracles, Anahit with Artemis, Tir and Mihr (Mithra) with Apollo and Helios, and Astghik with Aphrodite. This Hellenization of the pantheon, although a result of the ruling class’s attraction to Greek culture and language, still left a certain mark on Armenia.
Even in the historical works of 5th-century authors Agathangelos, Faustus Buzand, and Movses Khorenatsi, alongside the original names, the aforementioned Greek names of Armenian deities are also found.
As previously noted, the religion of ancient Armenia included the cult of the royal dynasty and the reigning king, who was often identified with a deity. This phenomenon was also reflected in folk art. For example, in the legend of Tigran’s struggle with the dragon Ajdahak, imbued with memories of truly historical events, Tigran clearly appears in the role of the dragon-slaying god Vahagn.
Movses Khorenatsi also preserved for us the legend of Artavazd, imprisoned in a cave and striving to emerge and destroy (or, according to other versions, save) the world, which is undoubtedly a variant of the legend of the god Mithra.
In addition to myths about gods and god-like heroes, epic tales dedicated to prominent historical figures—kings Yervand, Artashes, Tigran, Trdat, Sanatruk, and others—were widely spread in ancient Armenia. We owe the preservation of these tales to Movses Khorenatsi. Some excerpts he recorded verbatim; they mainly pertain to King Trdat I (second half of the 1st century AD), who appears in the tales under the name Artashes.
After defeating the Alans who invaded Armenia, King Artashes captures their prince. His sister, Princess Satnik, comes to the bank of the Kura River, where the retreating Alans have camped, and addresses Artashes on the opposite bank with these words:
“I call to you, O valiant man Artashes, Who defeated the brave tribe of the Alans. Heed the words of the fair-eyed daughter of the Alans And release the youth. For it is not fitting for heroes, for the sake of mere vengeance, To take the life of another heroic lineage, Or, having enslaved, to keep in bondage And thus ignite an eternal feud between two brave tribes.”
Enchanted by the princess’s wise speech and beauty, Artashes falls in love with her and sends matchmakers to her father, but the king of the Alans refuses him: “Where will the valiant man Artashes find Thousands and thousands, myriads and myriads—the ransom For the maiden of noble lineage—the princess of the Alans?”
And then:
“The brave king Artashes mounted his black steed,
Drew out the red lasso with the golden ring,
Swung it across the river like a swift-winged eagle,
Threw the red lasso with the golden ring,
Encircled the waist of the Alanian princess,
Caused pain to the tender waist of the princess,
And swiftly brought her to his camp.”
Artashes and Satnik’s Marriage
Gold rained down when Artashes married, Pearls rained down when Satnik wed.
However, the marriage was not a happy one. The queen fell in love with the dragon Argavan. Encouraged by this, Argavan hosted a feast in honor of Artashes And attempted to attack him in the dragon’s palace. Enraged, Artashes ordered the entire lineage of Argavan to be wiped out.
The Legend of Artavazd
Fragments of the legend of Artavazd have been preserved. During Artashes’ agony, many ended their lives. Seeing this, Prince Artavazd lamented:
“You have left and taken the whole country with you! Whom shall I rule over in these ruins?”
As Artashes lay dying, he cursed him:
“As you ride up the slope of Azatn Masis to hunt, May the unclean seize you and drag you up the slope of Azatn Masis. There you shall remain and never see the light!”
The curse came true, and Artavazd was bound in iron chains in an underground cave. Movses Khorenatsi, as we have seen, preserved truly poetic pearls—evidence of the high culture of words in ancient Armenia.
Written Languages in Ancient Armenia
In ancient Armenia, the written languages were Greek and Aramaic. Although few in number, the inscriptions on stone that have come down to us in Greek are diverse in character and content, indicating that the Greek language was used in many areas of life. The oldest Greek inscriptions in Armenia were found in Armavir.
They date back to the 3rd-2nd centuries BC. Among the seven inscriptions carved on two stones is a text of a message from the “king” of the Armavirians (“basileus,” likely the leader of the Armavir civic-temple community) Mithras to King Yervand. The message is written in the Greek epistolary formula. There are also literary texts, one of which mentions the famous ancient Greek poet Hesiod of the 7th century BC, and another is an excerpt from a work in verse written in the style of Euripides’ tragedies.
All this suggests that in this early period, there was already an interest in Greek culture in Armenia, and the number of people familiar with the Greek language was significant. The Greek inscription from Garni is dated to 77 AD and tells of the construction activities of Tiridates I. A Greek inscription from Aparan, likely carved in the 3rd century, reports a land donation by the king to a representative of the noble Gnuni family.
A large inscription from the ruins of the city of Tigranakert is very informative. It is a proclamation-decree of the Armenian king (likely Tiridates III, 298-330 AD) to the citizens of the city. There are also Greek epitaphs.
Aramaic inscriptions found in Armenia mostly date to Artashes I (first half of the 2nd century BC) and mention his name. They are carved on the very boundary stones, monuments of this king’s land edict, which Movses Khorenatsi also describes. An Aramaic inscription from Garni dates to the 2nd-3rd centuries AD and mentions the Armenian king Vologases II.
All these inscriptions, though in foreign languages, are Armenian and were composed by the royal chancellery. It is likely that parchment copies of the inscriptions were kept in the royal archive. There is some information about historiography in ancient Armenia. It developed at the royal court and in pagan temples. The court was a cultural center from early times. At the court of Tigranes II (95-55 BC), for example, two prominent representatives of Greek culture—Amphicrates of Athens and Metrodorus of Scepsis, nicknamed “the Roman-hater”—resided.
The latter, in addition to other works, wrote a history of Tigranes II, which, unfortunately, has not survived. The next known historiographer in Armenia was an Armenian, King Artavasdes II (55-34 BC); he composed speeches, wrote tragedies, and historical works that were known to the Greek author Plutarch, who lived more than a century after him. However, they have not survived to us.
Under the Arsacids, the traditions of court historiography continued; one of its representatives was Mar Abas Catina (3rd-4th centuries), whose work was widely used by Movses Khorenatsi.
Temple Historiography in Armenia
A representative of temple historiography in Armenia was the historian Olymp (Olympos), who lived in the early centuries AD. He was a priest of the famous temple of Aramazd in Ani, in the region of Daranali. Olymp wrote “Temple Histories,” which included the history of King Artashes I, using both oral folklore and written sources. Olymp’s work was continued in the 3rd century AD by the renowned Syrian writer Bardesanes, who visited Armenia for missionary purposes. “Temple Histories” also served as an important source for Movses Khorenatsi.
It is believed that Armenian pagan temples, like other ancient Near Eastern temples, were also involved in mathematics, calendar creation, medicine, and similar fields. However, there is no direct evidence of this yet.
We know little about other aspects of the spiritual culture of ancient Armenia, such as music and dance. Individual reports from ancient authors do not provide a complete picture but suggest that these cultural areas were quite developed.
More information has been preserved about the Hellenistic theater in Armenia. It is known that Tigran II built a theater building in the capital, Tigranakert, and invited Greek actors for performances. The Hellenistic theater, as is known, was a theater for the masses. The buildings—huge amphitheaters—were designed to accommodate the entire free population of the city, holding tens of thousands of spectators.
The Tigranakert theater did not last long, but Tigran’s experience was continued by his son Artavasdes II. According to Plutarch, theatrical performances were held in the royal palace in Artashat, again performed by Greek actors. The name of one of them has come down to us: Jason of Tralles, who played the main role in Euripides’ tragedy “The Bacchae” on the Artashat stage in 53 BC. Artavasdes himself, as mentioned, wrote tragedies, which were naturally staged primarily in the capital, Artashat.
Of course, long before the Hellenistic theater, forms of folk games and cult-theatrical performances had developed in Armenia, which continued to exist during this period, influencing the development of the Hellenistic theater on local soil.
Artatsolum
Temple of Garni “Garni Tachar”
ՆԵՄՐՈՒԹ ԼԵՌ ՀԱՅԵՐԵՆ ՄԱՍ_1_5 NEMRUT LER ARMENIAN PART_1_5
