In the 40s of the 11th century, Armenia fell under the rule of Byzantium. However, this period of Byzantine control was short-lived. Soon, the Seljuk Turks, Central Asian nomadic tribes, appeared in Armenia and quickly took over vast territories, establishing a major power.
The First Seljuk Campaigns
The Seljuk Turks launched their first campaign against Armenia in 1048. The Seljuk plundering army, encountering little resistance, occupied and devastated many regions of the country. In 1049, the Seljuks invaded Armenia again, exterminating tens of thousands of people and devastating numerous villages. They captured and completely destroyed the trading city of Artsn, near Karin, slaughtering its population. In the same year, during a battle in Basen, the Byzantine troops suffered a heavy defeat, and the Seljuks plundered and destroyed many cities, settlements, and villages.
Byzantine Response
After the battle in Basen, Byzantium, alarmed by the Seljuk threat, softened its policy towards Armenia. It eased the tax burden, allowed several large Armenian feudal lords to return to their homeland, restored their estates, and reduced religious persecution. This belated attempt aimed to use Armenian forces to prevent further Seljuk advances. Byzantium also adopted a similar policy towards Georgia.
Continued Seljuk Campaigns
The third Seljuk campaign, led by Sultan Tughril Bek in 1054, saw the Sultan’s troops scatter throughout the country, devastating many areas. In some places, they faced heroic resistance. The troops of the Vanand king Gagik fought the Seljuk hordes and repelled them from the approaches to the city of Kars. The inhabitants of Manazkert also put up a stubborn resistance, fortifying their city and fighting for about a month against Tughril-bek’s massive army. Although Kars and Manazkert stood firm, the country suffered terrible destruction and plunder.
Migration and Decline
Repeated Seljuk invasions led some Armenians to migrate to other countries, while many left the plains for the mountainous regions. The Armenian population of the fertile regions thinned out significantly, weakening their defense capability. A new major campaign was launched by Tughril-bek’s successor, Sultan Alp-Arslan, in 1064. He quickly subjugated the kingdoms of Lori and Syunik, captured and ravaged Ani, and the Ararat plain. Gagik, the king of Kars, also declared his submission to Alp Arslan. By 1064-1065, the Seljuk sultan had captured the Ararat region, Syunik, Aghvank, and Eastern Georgia.
The Battle of Manazkert
In 1071, Alp Arslan undertook a campaign in Southern Armenia and the eastern provinces of Byzantium. In August of the same year, the Byzantine army suffered a major defeat in the bloody Battle of Manazkert, fleeing with heavy losses. The battle had fatal significance for Armenia. According to the peace treaty concluded afterward, the central regions of Armenia and several eastern regions of Asia Minor went to the Seljuks, establishing Seljuk power over most of Armenia.
The Seljuk State and Its Disintegration
During the reign of Alp Arslan’s successor, Melik Shah (1072-1092), the Seljuk state grew even stronger. However, two or three decades after Melik Shah’s death, it disintegrated into several independent principalities-emirates, which frequently engaged in internecine wars. The Ani, Dvin, Kars, Khlat, and Karian emirates were formed in Armenia. Over time, the nomadic Seljuks settled in these mainly flat areas, displacing many indigenous inhabitants from their native regions.
Armenian Resistance and Struggle
The surviving Armenian principalities in Vanand, Syunik, Lori, and elsewhere waged an unequal struggle against the Seljuk emirates in the 11th-13th centuries. The Sasuya and Akhta-Morok principalities managed to maintain their independence, while the Syunik and Vanand kingdoms eventually fell under Seljuk rule. Most of the Lori principality was annexed to Georgia between 1110 and 1123.
Impact on Armenian Society
During the period of Seljuk rule, the Armenian people faced extreme hardship. Fertile fields turned into pastures, agriculture and gardening largely gave way to nomadic cattle breeding, and many cities, including Ani, Dvin, Karin, and Van, were destroyed. The economic and cultural life of the country suffered a severe blow.
Conclusion
The Seljuk invasions of the 11th century brought significant changes to Armenia, leading to widespread destruction, migration, and a transformation of the country’s social and economic landscape. Despite the challenges, the resilience of the Armenian people and their continued struggle against foreign domination remain a testament to their enduring spirit.
