Zeytun (Armenian: Զեյթուն), now known as Suleymanli, is a village in the Turkish province of Kahramanmarash. Historically, it was a significant city in Armenian Cilicia. The name Zeytun is derived from the Armenian word “Dzetun” (Զեյթուն), meaning lean oil.
Historical Overview
The Structure of Zeytun
Zeytun was divided into four quarters: Surenyan (Central), Verin Takh (New, in Turkish Yeni Dunya), Shovoryan (Baz Bayir), and Yagubyan (Kargezlar). Each quarter was led by “barons,” heads of princely families who migrated to Cilicia in the 11th century from Ani, Van, and Sasun.
Ottoman Era and Autonomy
Remarkably, Zeytun remained largely unscathed during the Ottoman conquest of historical Armenia. The Zeitunians aided the Ottomans in their conflicts with other Turkoman tribes, leading Sultan Murad IV to officially recognize their independence in 1618 in exchange for an annual tax.
Governance and Justice
Zeytun had a unique approach to justice. Criminals were not imprisoned but were either executed, expelled, or fined. The city was fortified, and while it included both Armenian and Turkish villages, Turks were not permitted to live within Zeytun’s walls. The Zeitunians fiercely resisted external control for centuries, maintaining their autonomy until 1915.
Resistance and Independence
Early Conflicts
Zeytun, along with other autonomous regions like Gandzasar, Shushi, Musa Dagh, and Sasun, was well-defended due to its mountainous terrain. Turkish authorities launched several campaigns against Zeytun in the 19th century, but the Zeitunians successfully defended their autonomy.
The 1862 Defense
In 1862, Aziz Pasha attacked Zeytun with an army of twelve thousand. However, four thousand Zeitunians defended their city, leading to its independence and tax exemption, thanks to the intervention of Napoleon III.
The Garibaldi Proposal
In 1863, Armenian Prince Levon Zeitunsky proposed a plan to liberate Cilicia from Turkish rule to Garibaldi, the Italian revolutionary. Although Garibaldi did not act on the proposal, it highlighted the Zeitunians’ determination to regain their freedom.
Continued Resistance
Despite accepting Turkish rule in 1865, the Zeitunians expelled Turkish authorities multiple times, notably in 1872, 1875, and during the 1877-1878 rebellion, restoring their independence for three years.
The 1895-1896 Massacres
During the massacres of Armenians under Abdul Hamid, the Zeitunians’ successful resistance halted the exterminations in the Adana region. Their actions led to a European-mediated agreement granting tax exemptions, Armenian representation in government, and a general amnesty.
The Armenian Genocide
In 1915, the Armenian Genocide began with brutal suppression of Armenian self-defense efforts in Urfa and attempts to capture Musa Dagh. The Armenians of Zeitun faced a similar fate. The massacre of Zeitun’s inhabitants was followed by the deportation of 15,000 surviving women, elderly, and children to the desert of Deir el-Zor, starting on April 8. In their place, Turks expelled from Rumelia (the Balkans) were settled.
Post-World War I and French Protectorate
Return and Second Deportation
After Turkey’s defeat in World War I and the establishment of the French protectorate in Cilicia, some Zeitunians returned to their city. However, their respite was short-lived. In 1921, the new Turkish authorities under the Kemalists deported the Zeitunians once again, marking another chapter of displacement and suffering.
The story of Zeitun is a poignant reminder of the resilience of the Armenian people in the face of relentless adversity. Despite repeated displacements and massacres, the spirit of Zeitun’s inhabitants endures as a testament to their unwavering strength and determination.
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