Cultural Development in Ancient Armenia

Historical Conditions of Cultural Development

After the establishment of the all-Armenian Van Kingdom in the 9th century BC, Armenia and the Armenian people entered a qualitatively new stage of development. This period is characterized by several achievements, the most notable of which include state-building, a writing system, a high level of economic life, architecture, urban planning, and an organized irrigation system.

Architecture

Archaeological materials from the monuments of the Van Kingdom provide insights into the architectural features and construction techniques of this period. Cities were mainly built on high hills, with citadels surrounded by stone walls at their peaks. These cities featured water canals, reservoirs, bridges, gardens, baths, palaces, and temples.

The Van Kingdom had royal, administrative, military, and religious cities. Royal cities included Arzashku, Tushpa, and Rusahinili. Most cities had administrative and economic significance, with numerous dwellings around their citadels forming cohesive economic units.

Major Urartian administrative and economic centers included Argishtihinili, Teishebaini, Oshakan, Aramus, and others. Military stronghold cities also played a significant role in the urban planning system, featuring structures such as barracks, stables, ponds, fortresses, and military camps. Fortresses had walls up to 18 meters high and 2-3 rows of walls with towers and trenches in front of them.

There were known cult centers for the highest trinity of the country’s pantheon—Haldi, Teisheba, and Shivini. The cult center of the supreme deity Haldi was the city of Musasir or Ardini. The cult center of the god Teisheba was the city of Kumenu, southeast of Lake Van. The cult center of the god Shivini was the capital, Tushpa.

The first information about the residential architecture of the Van Kingdom is preserved by M. Khorenatsi and refers to Tushpa, which, according to the historian, was a large, well-fortified city with numerous two-story and three-story houses. Many buildings were constructed in the citadel of Aragats Karmir-blur. Palaces are often mentioned alongside religious buildings in cuneiform records.

Large temples were extensive complexes where cult buildings were combined with secular, economic, production, and storage buildings. Rock-cut structures occupied a significant part of the construction art. These structures even had a patron deity—Airaini.

These included rock-cut staircases, cavities, artificial caves for cult and mausoleum purposes, tunnels, and more. The most significant rock-cut structures were located near the citadel of the city of Van. The construction of water canals was under the control of the central authority, with the most famous being the canals of kings Menua and Rusa, which are unique monuments of the ancient world.

The construction art of the Van Kingdom later had a significant impact on the architectural traditions of Western Asia, particularly Iranian (Achaemenid) traditions.

Metallurgy

Metalworking in the Van Kingdom is mentioned in the texts of Sargon II. His troops in Musasir captured 2 tons of gold, 5 tons of silver, and 100 tons of copper and iron items. Numerous tools have been discovered from monuments, including shovels, tridents, chisels, hammers, knives, axes, and more. In one of the dwellings of Karmir-blur, a bronze door lock was found with a cuneiform inscription: “Son of Rusa Argishti, fortress of the city of Teishebaini.”

Metalworking was widespread in the production of weapons and ammunition. Defensive and offensive weapons included spears, daggers, sabers, axes, and maces. Samples of gold and silver items have also been found.

The armor and equipment of the Van Kingdom’s soldiers consisted of several variants. Judging by the images on the Balawat gates, King Arame’s soldiers wore long, knee-length belted shirts, crested helmets, small shields, and were armed with short daggers, bows, and arrows. This description clearly depicts light infantry soldiers.

The equipment of the heavy infantry also included various types of armor, large combat shields, and decorated bronze belts, many of which are stored in museums in Munich and New York. A highly valuable report from Sargon II mentions that he captured 6 gold shields in Musasir, each weighing about 6.5 kg. The central protrusions of these shields were shaped like dogs with open mouths.

Ceramics and Stone Artifacts

Ceramic masters of that time produced thousands of clay vessels with various reddish, black, and yellowish surfaces for different uses. Among the vessels found in burials are groups of jugs, jars, and pots with openings.

Stone processing in Urartu reached a high level. Stone was widely used in everyday life, as evidenced by the numerous millstones, mortars, pestles, hammers, and stone bowls found in various monuments, which required a certain level of craftsmanship. Punches, scrapers, and other tools were made from cobblestones and tuff.

Soft stones were used to make troughs of various types and sizes, cheese-press funnels, pipes, and more. Stone was widely used during metal smelting, and various tools were made. The use of stone in art was more complex, with various sculptures made from stone. These included stone statues made from tuff by local stonemasons.

The most interesting artifacts are seals with rich imagery, including the tree of life, chariots and carts, kings and priestesses, palace scenes, and lions. Stone beads of various types and sizes, most of which were well-crafted, were also widespread. Most were made from sardonyx, agate, jasper, and mountain rocks.

Fresco Painting

Frescoes of this period had cultic, religious, and secular themes. They adorned the walls of temples, palaces, and other buildings. Fresco painting is mainly represented by materials from Karmir-blur, Voskeblur, and Erebuni. As shown by the remains of the preserved frescoes of Erebuni, the central part of the palace walls had a border made of several layers, including rosettes with date palms, stair towers, sacred trees with gods standing beside them, and images of berries. The depictions of sacred trees and deities in these illustrations were made with great care and high artistic quality.

Bone Artifacts

Most of these decorative items were made from ivory, which was imported from Nubia through the territories of Egypt and Assyria. The extent of ivory use in Urartu is evidenced by a record from Sargon II listing the trophies captured in Musasir, which included an ivory bed, 139 scepters, staffs, baskets, sabers, daggers, and more. Ivory statuettes of people are mainly known from Van, with the best examples housed in the British Museum. Among the samples found in Van is a human figure about 25.5 cm tall, adorned with patterned clothing.

Woodworking

Woodworking in Urartu reached a high level of development. Carpenters played a crucial role in constructing palaces, temples, and roofs of various buildings. Excavations at Argishtihinili and Karmir-blur provide insights into the types of wood used and the construction techniques. Roofs had two types of smooth coverings: in one case, logs were attached to each other, and in the other, they were laid out in a grid pattern, then covered with branches and reeds, topped with a thick layer of soil.

Excavations at Ayka-berd, Erebuni, Argishtihinili, Aragats, and other sites often reveal remnants of burnt logs, branches, and beams, indicating that building coverings were similar. Excavations at Karmir-blur also identified the types of wood used: pine, poplar, oak, and beech.

Carpenters used these woods to make building doors, traces of which were found at Argishtihinili and Karmir-blur. At Argishtihinili, they were made from thick logs, while at Karmir-blur, they were made from thick planks and reinforced with wooden rivets. Carpenters also prepared the main parts of traction and transport vehicles.

Furniture from this period is notable for its variety and splendor. In addition to royal thrones adorned with bronze statuettes, parts of wooden furniture decorated with diamond-shaped and round knobs were found at Karmir-blur. Creating such diverse furniture required fine tools: saws, flat axes, drills, punches, and more. Wood was also used to create numerous household, labor, and weapon items: shovels, forks, arrows, sabers, daggers, knives, door handles, quivers. Excavations at Karmir-blur show that wooden items such as spoons, spatulas, and statuettes were also used in daily life.

Religious Practices and Ceremonies

Cuneiform records describing temple constructions and sacrifices mention the gods Teisheba and Shivini after Haldi. Together, they form the supreme trinity of gods. Haldi was depicted as a warrior, blessing the king before a campaign and helping him defeat the enemy. Haldi’s wife, Arubani, was the supreme goddess of the pantheon. The “Mher’s Door” inscription lists the names of the Van Kingdom’s gods and the sacrifices offered to them (bulls, cows, sheep, goats, weapons, wine, etc.).

Gods were depicted as humans, but some elements of animals and birds were also present, reflecting ancient totemic beliefs.

Every campaign of the Van kings began with a ceremony where the king prayed to Haldi, Teisheba, Shivini, and other deities, loudly declaring the campaign’s goal and direction, seeking their patronage. Then, the battle cry “Haldi is mighty, the weapon of the god Haldi is mighty” was heard, and the army moved forward, carrying a banner representing Haldi. After the campaign, the victorious army returned to Tushpa. In Haldi’s temple, the king loudly reported the campaign’s results and dedicated the victory to Haldi. The king’s words were inscribed on stone, followed by sacrifices and celebrations.

Agricultural, Weather, and Funeral Ceremonies

Information about the timing and order of these ceremonies is found in the “Mher’s Door” inscription. It mentions three celebrations held three times a year, related to different stages of horticulture. The first celebration was held after grape pruning, which in Armenia began in the last decade of March and ended in the first half of April. During this time, the Barekendan festival (Armenian Maslenitsa) was celebrated in Armenia, marking the New Year.

In the month of “Sun (Shivini),” sacrifices were made to all the gods and “saints” of the state. The Van Kingdom’s month of “Sun” corresponded to March. Interestingly, in the traditional Armenian calendar, March was also dedicated to the sun and called Areg (“Month of the Sun”).

According to the beliefs of that time, after death, a person’s soul continued to exist, moving from this world to another. This is evidenced by the existence of the “God who moves souls” cult in the pantheon.

In Urartu, it was customary to bury the deceased in stone tombs carved into the rock. In such burial sites, consisting of several halls, the graves of kings and nobles were placed with their clothes, weapons, jewelry, and sacrifices. These stone tombs include structures carved into the rock of Van.

Seals depicted rituals related to the cult of the tree of life. Interestingly, the king also participated in these rituals, accompanied by a lion, which was presumably kept in temples as a sacred animal.

Writing in the Van Kingdom

The writing system of the Van Kingdom facilitated the spread of knowledge. Complex and simple calculations and measurements used in construction spurred the building of fortresses, cities, and water canals. Mathematics, geometric, and astronomical calculations were widely used in the Van Kingdom’s economy. The primary material for studying the cuneiform language (“Urartian,” “Biainian”) of the Van Kingdom is local records. Additional information can be gathered from Assyrian sources, which contain many proper names. Some assistance is provided by Hurrian language data.

About 1,000 cuneiform inscriptions from the Van Kingdom era have survived, made on stone, metal, and clay tablets. They were written from left to right, without spaces. The cuneiform inscriptions were similar to each other and partially conveyed information about the kings’ campaigns, construction works, and dedication ceremonies.

The cuneiform script adopted in the kingdom was borrowed from Assyria in the 9th century BC, with all signs simplified. The oldest records date back to the 830s BC, during the reign of Sarduri I. They were written in Assyrian, but the next king, Ishpuini, and his successors began writing in the local language.

Individual Cuneiform Signs

Individual cuneiform signs represented vowels, two- and three-syllable words. Ideographic inscriptions expressed whole words and phrases, a variety of which are determinatives used to classify proper names. For example, it is precisely indicated whether “people” or “country” is meant by a particular word. Due to the borrowing of the Van Kingdom’s writing system, it did not accurately reflect the sound system of the local language.

Therefore, it is difficult to determine how the words recorded in cuneiform inscriptions sounded, which significantly complicates the study of the language. Numerous lexical similarities and identities with the modern Armenian language are known (Tushpa-Tosp, Abiliani-Abegank, Jabaha-Javakhk, Tsuluki-Tsukh, Tsupa-Tsopki, etc.). The scribes of the Van Kingdom also left hieroglyphic records. The hieroglyphic system has local origins and derives from prehistoric rock carvings in Armenia.

It consists of 300 signs written from right to left, horizontally from top to bottom without spaces. About 1,500 hieroglyphic records and signs have survived. Based on initial analysis, it is assumed that the language of the hieroglyphic system is ancient Armenian. The powerful and sophisticated culture of the Van Kingdom spread its diverse influence beyond Armenia to Iran, the Caucasus, Greece, and other countries.

Culture of the Haykazun-Yervanduni Era

Urban Planning and Architecture

In the 6th-3rd centuries BC, a new stage of economic and political development began in Armenia, corresponding to the rule of the Yervandid dynasty. The architecture of Armenian settlements in the 6th-3rd centuries BC can be judged based on the construction activities in the Erebuni citadel. The 8th-century BC temple was later rebuilt into a columned hall, likely serving as a reception hall, meeting place, and assembly area. To the east of the palace was a brick building, the ash remnants of which indicate it was a fire temple.

The City of Armavir

In the western part of the Ararat Valley, on the left bank of the Araks River, lies a series of volcanic hills, the highest of which is Armavir Hill, standing 76 meters tall with a flat surface of 2 hectares at its peak. The hill has been inhabited since ancient times, as evidenced by both written sources and archaeological excavations.

The city of Armavir, surrounded by stone walls and filled with numerous palatial, cult, and economic buildings, became a significant administrative, economic, and religious center. In the early 6th century BC, after the fall of the Van Kingdom, life in the eastern part of the country continued. Armavir, as a cult center and settlement, retained its significance and became the capital of the second restored all-Armenian kingdom at the end of the 6th century BC.

Our knowledge of the material culture of the Yervandid era is significantly enriched by the study of the archaeological site of Astkh Hill. At the northeastern end of the village of Yenokavan in the Ijevan region, on a rocky section of Astkh Hill, lies a fortress city. It covers an area of 2 hectares and is surrounded by stone walls 3 meters thick, which have preserved a height of 3 meters. Excavations revealed a temple and its annexes, with the rectangular temple located at the highest point of the fortress. The walls, preserved to a height of 0.3-0.8 meters, are made of large stones and covered with clay.

Rural Settlements

A descriptive account of rural dwellings from this era was left by the Greek general and historian Xenophon, who passed through Armenia in 401 BC. Houses in eastern Armenia, unlike those in the central part of the country, were tower-like, due to defensive purposes. The picture of settlements in central and northern Armenia was different. Dwellings in these areas were semi-subterranean with two entrances—one for people and the other for livestock. These houses were prototypes of the traditional Armenian dwelling.

Material Culture and Trade

The material culture of the era is characterized by items found in excavations. Ceramics include jugs, vessels, and bowls that have parallels with the extensive region neighboring Armenia (Asia Minor, Iran) and serve as a link between the clay production of the Van Kingdom and the Hellenistic era. Metallurgy is represented by weaponry and public decorations.

Numerous examples of silverware, particularly rhytons, which became widespread during this period, have been found in Armenia. These vessels, resembling horns, featured animal depictions at the bottom. The material forms of craft production were found throughout the country, indicating developed trade relations.

Common items in circulation included weapons, armor, certain types of ceramics, and jewelry. There is also some evidence of a rudimentary monetary system in the 6th-3rd centuries BC. A striking example is the Milesian coins found in Erebuni, dating to the 5th century BC. During these centuries, the western parts of Armenia were integrated into regional trade networks, connected to Asia Minor and Mesopotamian markets. Additional information about trade relations is provided by Herodotus, who mentions that Armenia exported wine.

Ancient Beliefs of the Armenians

From ancient times, the Armenians believed in the animation of inanimate objects and phenomena, their mysterious connections with humans and animals, and their mutual spiritual migration. These beliefs included the personification of mountains, rocks, rivers, water, fire, the sky, celestial bodies, and natural phenomena, attributing human qualities to birds and animals, and epic legends and traditions that testified to their cults.

The mountains of Armenia were personified as brothers, with Masis and Aragats as sisters, Andok, Marutasar, and Mount Mrav as humanoid giants, while Taurus and Zagros were depicted as a dragon and a bull. The sun was represented as a bird with a loop in its beak, a fiery girl, a child or a youth, or an eye. The moon was depicted as a dying and resurrecting child, stars and constellations as various people and animals (the Milky Way as a trail of milk), clouds as a cow, goat, or woman, wind and hurricane as a world-destroying dragon, and thunder and lightning as a cosmic battle.

Totemic beliefs were remnants of epic tales about the origins of Ervand and Ervaz, Sanasar and Baghdasar, and the lion origin of the Artsruni. This explains Armenian names with animal origins: Eznik, Tsilik, Arjuk, Aryuts, Koryun, Indzak, Garnik, Aytsmenik, and others. According to the Armenian prehistoric worldview, mountains, animals, plants, and many natural phenomena were once people who were transformed by supernatural forces for some disobedience.

Among the elements of nature, fire and water were the most revered, along with certain types of trees and flowers, whose cults persisted even in later traditions. Fire was considered sacred and devoid of evil, and people swore by it. Later, it was associated with the cult of the home, family, and hearth. The hearth of the home, the tonir, where fire was constantly kept, was considered the sacred place of the family. Family ceremonies (baptism, wedding) were held near it. Later, the cult of fire became part of the official religious system and an important component of Armenian pagan religion. The place of fire worship, bagin, was called gurbak and was a remnant of the ritual of lighting the Trndez bonfire (now mid-February) and related ceremonies.

Traces of the water cult are preserved in epic tales about miraculous fish. Stone statues of “Vishaps” in the form of fish were installed near artificial and natural water channels. The water cult was also associated with plants, especially trees, medicinal plants, flowers, and cereals. Revered trees included the plane tree (sycamore), whose rustling leaves were used by priestesses for divination. Trees had their own dedication day, Tsakhkazard, and water and flowers had their own, Ambardzumi, both of which were later adapted to the Christian calendar.

Myths

An important element of the spiritual culture of this historical period is myths, ancient Armenian epic legends, and ancient beliefs. Myths reflect the ancient worldview of the people, their ideas about nature and society, and represent the earliest forms of literature.

The most significant Armenian myth is the tale of Hayk and Bel. With some variations, it is included in “The History of Armenia” by M. Khorenatsi and the work of an Unknown Author, which is attached as a preface to the History of Sebeos. Its echoes are also present in the works of Anania Shirakatsi. Here, Hayk appears as a freedom-loving and rebellious titan who refuses to submit to the titan Bel and, leaving Babylon, settles in Armenia. By killing Bel in battle, who attacked him, Hayk defended the independence of his country, which was named Hayk after him.

The aforementioned works also fully present the myth of Ara the Beautiful and Shamiram, which was so widespread that some of its fragments were reflected in the works of ancient authors, particularly in Plato’s notable work “The Republic.” M. Khorenatsi also conveyed legends about Aram and Tork Angegh. Ancient Indo-European tribal deities continued to exist in the national tradition at a new level, as epic, historical heroes, tribal ancestors (Torgom, Tork, Hayk, Aram, Ara, Ervand, Ervaz, Tigran Ervandyan), and their demonic adversaries as foreign invaders (Bel, Nebrovt, Shamiram, Ajdahak).

The oldest fragments of Armenian history are presented in the ancient Armenian national epic. It tells of historical events, albeit with chronological deviations and interweaving with myths. One of the oldest is the myth of Tigran Ervandyan and Ajdahak, which is a mythological memory of the relationship between Armenians and Medes.

The Pantheon of Ancient Armenian Gods

Myths and epic writings are valuable sources for studying the ancient beliefs of the Armenians and the pantheon of ancient gods. The Armenian pantheon entered a new stage of development, systematization, and classification of the cult of deities during the period of strengthening the all-Armenian statehood.

The oldest Armenian god is Hayk, whose cult dates back to pre-tribal society. Initially, Hayk was depicted as a hunter-titan, and the constellation Orion was named after him. Hayk symbolized the Armenian people’s struggle against foreign tyranny for their freedom and independence.

The worship of Tork Angegh was also widespread among several Asia Minor peoples. In the Hittite kingdom, he was known as Tarqu and held an important place in the pantheon. In the myth passed down by Movses Khorenatsi, Tork was called Angegh, meaning “ugly” (Armenian: “Tgeh”), but in ancient times, “Angeghya” might have meant “of the Angegh clan.” Angegh is also one of the ancient Armenian gods, and his name has totemic origins related to the “hawk” (Armenian: “angh”).

Ara is an ancient god of local origin. Initially, his worship was associated with agriculture, sowing, and spring vegetation. The worship of dying and resurrecting gods was widespread in the Ancient East, and the image of Ara has parallels in the pantheons of many ancient peoples.

Under the influence of the Ancient East, Ara began to appear alongside Shamiram, who was the goddess of love and fertility in the Assyrian pantheon and was distinguished by her lustfulness. Her worship gained many followers in Armenia, and her image was associated with Ara. Alongside Ara and Shamiram, spirits called “aralez” were also worshipped in Armenia. They were believed to have descended from dogs and, according to ancient beliefs, licked the wounds of heroes who had fallen for their homeland, resurrecting them.

In the records of Urartu, the word “ashtiusi” is mentioned for the first time, meaning “idol, god,” which is rightly identified with the modern Armenian word “astvats” – god. The deity Arci-bedini in the state pantheon was identified with an eagle (Armenian: “arciv”), Dziukuni with a fish (Armenian: “dzuk”), and Tsinu-iardi with birth (Armenian: “tsnund”).

The former centers of Armenian tribal unions with their cult places continued to exist in the new all-state religious system as sanctuaries dedicated to various deities (Ani-Kamah, Erizan, Tordan, Bagharich in High Armenia, Ashtishat and the nearby Mount Karke in Taron, Bagavan in Bagrevand, Armavir, Artashat, and Bagaran in the Ararat Valley, the stone of Darbnats southeast of Lake Van).

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