Ancient and Medieval Sources on Artsakh (Karabakh) as Part of Armenia’s State Territory

Karabakh during the Periods of Persian Marzpanate, Arab Conquest, Seljuk Invasion, Tatar-Mongol Raids, and Tamerlane’s Incursion

Strabo (circa 64 BCE – circa 20 CE)

“The Kura River originates in Armenia, immediately entering the aforementioned plain. After receiving the Aragvi, which flows from the Caucasus, along with other tributaries, it courses through a narrow valley and flows into Albania. As a mighty river, it rushes between Armenia and Albania, through plains rich in pastures… ultimately emptying into the Caspian Sea.” —Strabo, Geography, XI, 3, 2.

“Among the valleys of Armenia, some are moderately fertile, while others are exceedingly so. Such is the valley of Araxene, through which the Arax River flows toward the borders of Albania before emptying into the Caspian Sea. Next to it lies Sakasene, also bordering Albania and the Kura River, followed by Gogharene.” —Strabo, Geography, XI, 14, 4.

Additional references to the Kura River as a boundary with Albania can be found in: —Strabo, II, 1, 14; XI, 7, 2; XI, 8, 4; XI, 14, 3-4, 6.

Pliny the Elder (23/24 CE – 79 CE)

“Now we shall list the inhabitants of the regions bordering Armenia: the entire plain along the Kura River is inhabited by the Albanian tribe, followed by the Iberians…” —Pliny the Elder, Natural History, VI, 28-29.

“This tribe [the Albanians], settled across the Caucasus Mountains, occupies a land that, as stated, extends to the Kura River, which serves as a boundary between Armenia and Iberia.” —Pliny the Elder, Natural History, VI, 39.

Plutarch (circa 46 – 119/126 CE)

“Pompey left Afranius to defend Armenia and, seeing no other option, pursued Mithridates through lands inhabited by Caucasian tribes. The least numerous of these tribes were the Albanians and Iberians: the Iberian domain stretched to the Moschian Mountains and the Euxine (Black) Sea, while the Albanians lived eastward, reaching the Caspian Sea. Initially, the Albanians agreed to allow Pompey passage through their land. However, when winter caught the Roman army in these territories and the Romans were celebrating Saturnalia, the Albanians, numbering at least forty thousand, crossed the Kura River and attacked them.

The Kura River originates from the Iberian mountains, receives the Arax River, which flows from Armenia, and then empties into the Caspian Sea through twelve mouths.

Pompey calmly allowed the barbarians to cross the river, though he could have prevented them. He then attacked and routed them, slaying many. When the Albanian king sent envoys to plead for mercy, Pompey forgave him and, sealing peace, advanced against the Iberians.

Pompey later received news of another Albanian uprising. Angered, he turned back against them, crossing the Kura River once more—this time with difficulty and at great risk, as the barbarians had constructed a long palisade along the riverbank…” —Plutarch, Life of Pompey, 34, 35.

Claudius Ptolemy (83/100 – 161/178 CE)

“Greater Armenia is bordered to the north by a portion of Colchis, Iberia, and Albania, following the aforementioned line that runs along the Kura River.” — Geography, V, 12, 1.

“Albania is bordered to the south by a portion of Greater Armenia, from the boundary with Iberia to the Hyrcanian Sea, near the mouth of the Kura River.” — Geography, V, 11, 1.

“The cities and villages of Albania are as follows: located between Iberia and the river that originates in the Caucasus and flows into the Kura, which runs along the entire length of Iberia and Albania, separating them from Armenia.” — Geography, V, 11, 3.

Appian (circa 90/100 – circa 170 CE)

“But Orozes, the Albanian king, and Artoces, the king of Iberia, with 70,000 warriors, ambushed him near the river Kurna, which empties into the Caspian Sea through twelve navigable mouths after being joined by numerous tributaries, the largest of which is the Araxes. Detecting the ambush, Pompey linked both banks of the river with a bridge and drove the barbarians into dense thickets, surrounding them with his army and setting the thickets ablaze. Those who attempted to flee were pursued until they finally sent hostages and offered gifts.”

“From there, Pompey turned back and advanced into Armenia.” — Mithridatic Wars, 103-104.

Cassius Dio (155/160 – 235 CE)

*”After settling affairs in Armenia, [Pompey] wintered in the Anaitis region (in Acilisene) and by the river Kirna, dividing his troops into three [sections] and receiving various supplies and far more funds than stipulated from Tigranes.

However, his winter stay was not peaceful, as Orozes, king of the Albanians, who lived beyond the Kirna River, rose against them on the eve of the [festival] Cronia.”* — Roman History, XXXVI, 53, 5; 54, 1.

Pavstos Buzand (5th century)

Book III, Chapter VII — On the Plundering Raid of the Maskut King into Armenian Territory, the Great War That Ensued, and His Defeat

At that time, King Sanesan of the Maskuts, enraged and hostile toward his relative, the Armenian King Khosrov, gathered his entire army—Huns, Pukhs, Tavaspars, Hetchmataks, Izmahs, Gatovs, Gluars, Gugars, Shichbs, Chilbs, Balasichs, Yegersvans, and countless other nomadic tribes under his rule. He crossed his border, forded the great Kura River, and flooded Armenian lands.

Book IV, Chapter L — On the Collapse of the Armenian Kingdom

For thirty-four years, Armenia waged war against the Persian King. Eventually, both sides grew weary and exhausted. Dissatisfaction spread within the Armenian camp, and nobles began deserting King Arshak. Among the first were the bdeshkh of Aldznik and the bdeshkh of Noshirakan… Soon, the bdeshkh of Gugark, the lords of Dzor and Kolb, along with the ruler of Gardmanadzor, and all those surrounding them, rebelled and defected to the Persian king. Likewise, fortified regions such as Artsakh, Tmorik, and Kordik withdrew allegiance. Ultimately, even the Armenian royal holdings in Atropatene abandoned the crown, causing the kingdom to deteriorate.

Book V, Chapter VIII — On Sparapet Mushegh’s Campaigns

When peace was restored with Persia, Sparapet Mushegh turned to crush those who had rebelled against the Armenian kingdom. He first reclaimed the royal domains in Atropatene…

Book V, Chapter XII — On Artsakh

Mushegh defeated Artsakh in a major battle, taking many captives, seizing hostages, and imposing tribute.

Book V, Chapter XIII — On Albania

Mushegh also marched against Albania and devastated its forces. He reclaimed many districts that had been occupied—Uti, Shakashen, Gardmanadzor, Kolt, and neighboring territories. The Kura River was re-established as the border between Armenia and Albania, as in earlier times.

Book V, Chapter XV — On Iberia

Mushegh advanced against the Iberian king… He seized lands up to the old Armenian-Iberian border—the great Kura River—and then withdrew.

Additional Excerpts

“After restoring and consecrating all the churches of that region, Grigoris crossed the Kura River into the barbarian domains of the great king and reached the camp of the Arsacid Maskut army.”

Excerpt from Book III, Chapter VI, preserved in ancient Armenian manuscripts. Published in: Galust Ter-Mkrtchyan, Armenological Studies, Vol. I, Yerevan, 1979, p. 361 (in Armenian).

Menander of Byzantium (Late 6th Century)

“Roman generals again entered Albania, forcing the Sabirs and Albanians to resettle on this side of the Kura River.” — Byzantine Historians, II, St. Petersburg, 1860, pp. 41-412.

Ashkharatsuyts – Geography (7th Century)

“Utik stretches along the entire right bank of the Kura River, from Gugark (Gogarene) to the confluence of the Araxes and Kura rivers.”

“But we shall speak specifically about the land of Albania, which lies between the great Kura River and Mount Caucasus.” — Ashkharatsuyts, attributed to Movses Khorenatsi.

Sebeos (7th Century)

“Vahram Chubin promised that in the event of the fall of the Sassanids, he would restore the Armenian kingdom within its former borders, including ‘all Armenian lands from Kapkoy to the gates of Aghvank’…” — Sebeos, p. 37.

Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus on Khachen-Artsakh as Part of Armenia

“Official letters from the emperor to the princes of Khachen and Sevoridia are addressed ‘to Armenia’.” — Sources:

• R.M. Bartikyan, Foreign Sources on Armenia and Armenians, Byzantine Historians, Yerevan, 1970 (in Armenian), p. 151.
• A.A. Hakobyan, P.M. Muradyan, K.N. Yuzbashyan, On the Study of the History of Caucasian Albania, IFJ, 1987, No. 3.

Suhrab (Ibn Sarabiun), Persian-Arab Geographer (10th Century)

“Knowledge of al-Kurr—that is, the river of Inner Armenia. Its source lies in a mountain near Bab al-Abwab in the land of al-Lan, and it flows towards Tiflis, extending along its eastern side. Then, it reaches the place of confluence before emptying into the sea of Jurjan.”

“Knowledge of the river ar-Rass, that is, the river of Outer Armenia. Its source lies in a mountain between Khilat and Kalikaia… It then flows and merges with the al-Kurr river at the place of confluence, and the two rivers continue together in a single stream. Their joint mouth is near the site of their convergence.”* — The Book of Wonders of the Seven Climates, published in: T.M. Kalinina, Early Arab Scholars’ Reports on the Caliphate, Moscow, 1988, p. 117.

(ar-Rass refers to the Araxes River.)

Kirakos Gandzaketsi (13th Century)

Chapter 10. A Brief Summary of the History of Aghvank

“In the first part of our history, we recounted the story of the Holy Illuminator of Armenia, Apostle and Martyr, guardian of the three holy apostles—Thaddeus, Bartholomew, and Judas James—the saintly Grigoris, and through his prayers, we have arrived at this point. In the second part, we shall include a chapter on the illuminators of Aghvank as our kin and co-religionists, especially since their rulers spoke Armenian, many of them conversed in Armenian, their kings were subordinate to Armenian rulers, governed under their authority, and their bishops were ordained by Saint Gregory and his successors. The people lived among us in the Orthodox faith, and because of all this, the two peoples must be discussed together. We shall briefly narrate the history of their leaders up to the point where we left them.”

Chapter 30. The Massacre in Khachen and the Pious Prince Jalal

*”We have briefly recounted the devastation wrought upon our lands by the savage warriors known as the Tatars. Now, let us speak of Khachen and the horrors they committed there. Their raids extended in all directions, and they even divided lands by lot. Some of their commanders, with well-equipped, heavily armed troops, invaded the land of Khachen, slaughtering and enslaving many of its inhabitants.

The survivors fled or fortified themselves in strongholds. Those deceived or forced down from the mountains were either killed or captured. The majority secured themselves in the inaccessible places known as Havakhahats, believing themselves safe. But since the catastrophe was the work of divine judgment, the Tatars secretly climbed and suddenly entered the fortresses, slaughtering all with the sword and throwing many off the cliffs. The number cast down was so great that corpses covered the ground, and blood ran like a stream. None were spared. For a long time, bones could be seen piled like stones in heaps.”*

Chapter 55. About Sartaq, Son of Batu

*”Among those who arrived before Sartaq was the great prince of Khachen and Artsakh, Hasan, affectionately called Jalal—a pious, God-fearing, and humble man of Armenian descent. Sartaq received him and his company with kindness and respect: Ishkhan Grigor, commonly known as Otrak (though elderly by then), Ishkhan Desam, a modest youth, Vardapet Markos, and Bishop Grigor.

Sartaq led Jalal to his father, honored him greatly, and restored his ancestral lands—Charaberd, Akana, and Karkar—previously taken by Turks and Georgians. Hasan also secured a decree in the name of Lord Nerses, the Catholicos of Aghvank, freeing all his holdings from taxation, granting him safe passage, and ensuring his authority remained uncontested.”* — Kirakos Gandzaketsi, History of Armenia, translated from Old Armenian by L.A. Khanlaryan, Moscow, 1976.

Prince Hasan Jalal of Khachen (1214–1261) on Himself and His Domain

“I, the humble servant of God, Jalal Dola Hasan, son of Vakhtang, grandson of the great Hasan, am the rightful ruler and king of the high and great land of Artsakh and its adjacent regions.” — I.A. Orbeli, Hasan Jalal, Prince of Khachen, Proceedings of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, 1909, p. 430.

Anonymous Persian-Language Author of the 13th Century on Khachen (Artsakh)

“This region (vilayet) is difficult to access, located in the mountains amid forests. It belongs to the districts of Arran, and its population is Armenian. The people of Abkhazia call their ruler ‘Padishah Tagaver’…” — Manuscript A-253, folio 202b, Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, published in: Scholarly Notes of the Institute of Oriental Studies, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, vol. IX, 1954, p. 51.

Johann Schiltberger, German Traveler, on Karabakh as Part of Armenia under Shah Rukh, Son of Tamerlane (1420)

LXII. On Armenia

*”I also spent much time in Armenia. By order of Tamerlane, I was sent to his son, who ruled over two kingdoms in Armenia. This son, named Shah Rukh, used to winter in a vast plain called Karawag, which had excellent pastures.

The Kura River (chur), also known as the Tigris (tigris), irrigates this plain, and the finest silk is gathered near its banks. Although this plain lies in Armenia, it belongs to heathens, and Armenian settlements are compelled to pay tribute to them.”* — The Travels of Johann Schiltberger through Europe, Asia, and Africa from 1394 to 1427, translated from German and annotated by F. Brun, Odessa, 1866.

Yuri Barsegov “Nagorno-Karabakh in International Law and Global Politics”

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